Trees on Farm

Planting trees and shrubs, and protecting and managing existing native vegetation, offers multiple benefits for farmers, farm enterprises, the wider community and the landscape.⁸

Benefits^{10, 11, 12}

• Increased habitat for biodiversity: Native vegetation provides wildlife habitat. Beneficial fauna including bees, birds, bats and insects such as predators, parasites and parasitoids, provide ecosystem services (see glossary above) such as pollination and pest control. Encouraging beneficial fauna can result in increased land productivity, with fewer management actions and agricultural chemicals needed to control pests and diseases.
• Water quality improvements: Native vegetation in riparian areas and floodplains can reduce the amount of sediment and nutrients entering waterways over the ground surface or leaching through the soil, and hence improve overall water quality both on the farm and for the whole catchment. This is especially valuable if many farms within a catchment participate in planting and maintaining native vegetation within riparian zones.
• Soil improvements: Multispecies plantings (i.e. trees, shrubs, forbs and grasses) will have root systems active at different depths in the soil. Trees and shrubs have root systems that reach deeper down into the soil profile than annual crops and pastures. They absorb nutrients from deeper soil layers and return these nutrients through litter fall to the soil surface, improving nutrient cycling. Tree and shrub root systems bind the soil while forbs, grasses and litter fall protect the soil surface, aiding in erosion control.
• Windbreaks¹³: Trees and shrubs, particularly when densely planted as windbreaks and with a variety of heights, help reduce and redirect wind. A reduction in wind speed results in less evapotranspiration, helping conserve water on farms and can even reduce the risk of fires. A redirection of wind provides protection for livestock, and the right location of a windbreak can create a microclimate that helps increase crop yields by retaining more moisture in the soil due to less drying winds.
• Shelter and protection for livestock¹³: Trees and shrubs on farms can offer shade on hot days and protect against cold winds and driving rains on cold days. Livestock are healthier, in better condition and more productive (as measured in increased wool, meat and milk production) if protected from adverse weather conditions including extreme heat and cold.
• Crop and pasture protection: Trees and shrubs can protect crops and pastures from high evapotranspiration and damaging winds, and may enhance productivity¹³ by increasing soil moisture retention.
• Livestock fodder reserves: Having additional forage available during feed shortages (e.g. drought) is a valuable risk mitigation strategy for livestock enterprises and there are many tree and shrub species that livestock can consume during these times.
• Social, cultural, health and quality of life benefits: Trees and native vegetation increase landscape amenity and beauty.¹² A scenic environment enhances the mental and physical wellbeing of people on farms and in rural communities.^{14, 15} Woody vegetation can improve people’s health and quality of life by trapping and filtering dust, reducing chemical spray drift, and diminishing noise. Additionally, layered vegetation can hide ‘eyesores’ and parts of the landscape that is visually unappealing.

Consider the risks and trade-offs

• Long timeframe: Planting trees and other vegetation should be part of a long-term, whole farm plan. Many tree species take a long time to grow, so incorporating fast-growing species into the plan that can act as ‘pioneer’ plants and create microclimates conducive to establishing other types of vegetation would be advantageous. Beneficial results may not be quick, but they will accrue over time.
• Fire risk: Although trees and native vegetation are flammable, they can mitigate the overall risk of fire if plantings are well designed and species are carefully chosen (i.e. windbreaks slow windspeed and can therefore contribute to fire mitigation risk. Plantings should be a minimum of 30 or 40m from homes and other structures. Native species that are fire-resistant or fire-retardant include species such as kurrajong (Brahychiton populneus) and certain saltbush species.¹⁶
• Farm production risk: Risks to farm production are site and context specific. If plantings are in unproductive marginal areas, there is no loss of productive land to revegetation projects. If plantings are in productive areas, the benefits mentioned above may more than offset the lost production of crops or pastures.
• Farm infrastructure: New plantings should be planned and designed to not interfere with existing infrastructure such as reticulation systems or roads or planned future access or infrastructure requirements. If new plantings block access routes or livestock waterpoints, consider relocating these before planting.

8. van Noordwijk, M. (2021). Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services. Land https://doi.org/10.3390/land10080770

9. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (2009). Ecosystem Services: Key Concepts and Applications, Occasional Paper No 1, Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts, Canberra. https://www.agriculture.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/ecosystem-services.pdf

10. Curtis, D. (1994). Re-leafing New England: A farmer's guide to trees on farms. New England Trees on Farms 1994. Funded by the Federal Government through the Natural Resources Management Strategy and One Billion Trees Program. Co-ordinated by Northern Tablelands Tree Management Committee for the Northwest Catchment Management Committee. ISBN 0 646 243 12 8.

11. Haslem, A, Bennett, A.F., Radford, J.Q. (2024). Importance of (Semi)Natural Vegetation on Farms for Achieving Multiple Objectives: A Conceptual Model Based on Temperate Southern Australia. Agricultural systems 213, 103795.

12. Shrestha, R.K. and Alavalapati, J.R.R. (2004). Valuing environmental benefits of silvopasture practice: A case study of the Lake Okeechobee watershed in Florida. Ecological Economics,49 (3), 349–359.

13. Sustainable Farms. (2022). Managing Natural Assets on Farms: Shelterbelts. Sustainable Farms Brochure 1.2. Available from:https://www.sustainablefarms.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/Shelterbelts-Brochure-FINAL_Feb-2023_online.pdf. Also see:https://www.sustainablefarms.org.au/on-the-farm/shelterbelts/

14. Maller, C., Townsend, M., Pryor, A., Brown, P., St. Leger, L. (2006). Healthy nature healthy people: 'contact with nature' as an upstream health promotion intervention for populations. Health PromotionInternational21(1):45-54.https://doi:10.1093/heapro/dai032

15. Schirmer, J., Berry, H.L., O'Brien, L.V. (2013). Healthier land, healthier farmers: considering the potential of natural resource management as a place-focused farmer health intervention. Health Place 24,97-109.https://doi:10.1016/j.healthplace.2013.08.007

16. Sustainable Farms. (2020). Fallen tree and dead timber. Sustainable Farms Brochure 7. Available from:https://www.sustainablefarms.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2021/01/Fallen-timber-and-dead-trees-ONLINE_0.pdf

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Natural regeneration and revegetation are two alternative ways of increasing the woody vegetation extent on your farm, and both require planning and research. There are eight essential steps to consider: 1. Assess the condition of the site; 2. Set goals; 3. Decide on a planting method; 4. Plan; 5. Prepare; 6. Plant; 7. Grow; and 8. Monitoring and maintenance.

1. Assess site condition
   • When choosing the site(s) for your vegetation project, consider any existing vegetation as well as your farm production. Understand the site and site characteristics.
   • Consider land use, vegetation and environmental conditions – including soil attributes, the movement of surface water across the site, and local climate.¹⁸
   • What is the condition of the site? What land practices occurred previously? How has previous and current land use changed the site? If the site condition is highly altered, differing significantly from the pre-European reference ecosystem*, or your vegetation goals are inconsistent with returning to the reference ecosystem*, then rehabilitation* might make more sense than restoration*.
2. Set goals
   • What do you want to achieve with your vegetation project? Trees and vegetation fulfil multiple purposes and provide many benefits, but you may want particular species, or a specific configuration to achieve your primary goals.¹⁷
   • One of the main benefits of vegetation on farms is to enhance biodiversity, including natural pest control and pollination services, better soil and water quality, and reduced erosion and salinity risks. Your specific goals will help you decide on a planting method.
3. Decide on a planting method
   • Natural regeneration is preferred if there are still native species present, or there is a native seedbank.¹⁹ Natural regeneration is passive, cheap and requires little labour, but it can take a long time, as it depends on conditions being just right. Assisted regeneration is natural regeneration but with management interventions, for example, weed control or fencing of the site from livestock and pests. Revegetation, by contrast, is expensive and labour-intensive, but produces quicker and more precise results, as you can choose to plant particular species in specific numbers and configurations (spacings and layout).
4. Plan
   • Vegetation projects need to be part of long-term, whole-farm plan,¹⁷ and ideally congruent with existing farm enterprises and with the landscape that the farm is part of. The whole-farm plan should accommodate the idea that vegetation will continue to grow, change and die.¹⁷
   • If the aim of a revegetation project includes earning carbon credits, there are considerations that need to be followed, as set out in the different methods supported by the Clean Energy Regulator (CER) https://cer.gov.au/schemes/australian-carbon-credit-unit-scheme/how-to-participate-accu-scheme
   • In choosing the site, check if the revegetation project may impact Aboriginal places or objects.
   • Find out whether there are grants to cover (some of the) costs of regeneration or revegetation (e.g. fencing, weed control, the purchase of seedlings or seed).
   • Consider resource limitations, such as time and money. Revegetation is a multi-stage project, and it is better to start small, slow and cheap, and plan carefully.¹⁷ A recent (2025) example budget is set out in the NSW Government’s Living Carbon Grants brochures for different regions (see the Reference list). The resources available for ongoing maintenance and management – finances, time, tools, infrastructure, expertise and skills (see Fact sheet 6: Maintenance and management) – should inform any revegetation project. Work out how much of your time, effort and resources to spend on each stage of the project. It is better to do a smaller manageable project that you can maintain well, rather than a bigger, more ambitious one that is neglected and does not achieve the project’s goals. Manage adaptively: start small, build on your successes, and learn from your mistakes.
   • Learn from others’ successes and failures. Lessons learnt are especially useful if they are from projects similar to yours under similar conditions. Talk to neighbours, your local Landcare group, NRM organisation or Local Land Services (LLS), about their experiences and seek advice.
   • Consider species selection carefully. Species from the reference ecosystem* will often have the best chance of survival. If the site has been affected by land management practices, or if the climate has changed/forecast to change appreciably, you might need a different mix of species to suit the future environment. For example, if the climate has become, or is projected to become drier, choose a mix of species both from the reference ecosystem as well as more drought-resistant species (see Fact sheet 5: Tree and vegetation selection²⁰).
   • Once you have decided what species to plant, research their availability and the cost of tubestock or seed from reputable nurseries or suppliers. Plan ahead by ordering seed and tubestock 12–18 months in advance. Work out the quantity of seed or number of seedlings required. This will depend on the size and habit of the plant species at maturity, and your functional goals for the vegetation. For seed, the quantity required will depend on the seed mix composition and seeding rates.²¹ The benefits of direct seeding are that it is cheap, only the fittest plants will survive, and it can be used in inaccessible areas. Seedlings (e.g. tubestock) are more expensive but, as they already have root systems and are growing, they are more likely to establish successfully. The choice between direct seeding and planting tubestock depends on site conditions, local conditions and the aim of the plantings. For example, if there is too much competition from weeds and seed is unlikely to germinate, direct seeding is not a viable option. Precision planting is necessary for establishing a windbreak, so tubestock plantings will be more effective.
   • Deciding when to plant will depend on your region, the chosen site and weather. It is not advisable to plant in a drought unless seedlings can be watered at planting and at intervals thereafter to ensure their survival. Consider normal rainfall and temperature patterns, recent rainfall, and the current seasonal outlook. The ideal time is when there is plenty of soil moisture deep in the profile, and when rain is expected. If possible, avoid the hottest months. If using tubestock, you will also be constrained by the expected readiness of your seedlings, given you must order them 12-18 months in advance of the planned planting date and the money that you outlaid to pre-purchase the seedlings. Tubestock can become too old and success will be greatly reduced if they are not planted within the optimal window from when they are ready to go. If you are also using tree protection (guards) for protection against wind and rabbits, order these in time for planting.
5. Prepare
   • If the revegetation method is chosen:
     • Site preparation is key to ensuring that revegetation has the highest chance of success.
     • Assess the most likely obstacles to germination of seed and seedling establishment, for example, compacted soil or vigorous growth of weeds or pasture. Plan to mitigate and manage these obstacles.
     • Prepare the soil by addressing compaction (e.g. by deep ripping) and nutrient imbalances, to create optimal soil conditions for germination, root growth and plant establishmen.²²
     • Weeds can be controlled through crash grazing if you have livestock, mowing, cultivation and/or herbicide.
   • Fencing can be used to exclude livestock and large vertebrate pests (pigs, goats, kangaroos) from revegetation sites. The total cost of fencing could include materials and labour or contractor hire.
   • Determine what labour as well as planting techniques and tools you will need for planting. There are different types of seeding, scalping, deep ripping, mounding and watering implements which could be useful, especially in the case of a large-scale project.
   • Anticipate work health and safety issues ahead of time and implement controls prior to commencing work at the site.
6. Plant

   a) Seedlings²²

   • Prepare seedlings for planting, for example, seedlings will need to acclimatise for a few days on site and harden off. Ensure they are well watered as tubestock have limited soil and moisture in the tube.
   • Do not plant stressed seedlings. The root ball should be well-formed and soft. The shoot should be no more than 4–5 times the height of the root ball.
   • Try to plant into moist soil but if not possible ensure watering after planting.
   • On planting day: care for seedlings both before and during the day so that they do not dry out.
   • Take care with planting, especially tubestock, planting the root ball so that there is at least 5 cm of soil above it, and tamping down the soil around the root ball to ensure there is good root ball-to-soil contact. Also form a bowl or levee around the seedling to retain water and catch any subsequent rain to infiltrate close to the root ball.
   • Water-in seedlings within 2 hours of planting with at least 1–2 L of water per plant. This will help ensure there are no air pockets around the root ball and provide moisture.

   b) Seeds²¹

   • Certain species’ seeds benefit from pre-treatment (e.g. scarification, or soaking such as smoke water) to stimulate germination.
   • Bulking agents, such as sawdust or sand, can be added to the seed mix to ensure an even spread of seed and achieve the intended sowing rate. The sowing rate depends on the aim of the revegetation as well as the species and should have been determined during planning.
   • Seeds can be broadcast on the surface of the soil, harrowed in or placed below the soil surface (drill seeding). Regardless, ensure good soil to seed contact.
   • There is an excellent detailed direct seeding guide by Gibson-Roy and others (see the References list).
7. Grow

   Protect planted seedlings from damage and maintain the growing conditions initiated in the Plan and Prepare stages. Continually assess the site for any threats to the newly established vegetation. This includes:

   • Checking the survival rate. If establishment is poor, work out why before deciding whether to replant the same species or try other species.
   • Continual weed management during establishment (1-3yrs).
   • Protecting the site from livestock, pest and feral animals to minimise damage.
   • Watering should not be necessary if planting was well-planned and executed at the right time. But unexpected dry or hot conditions may demand watering, especially in the first 12–18 months.
8. Monitoring and maintenance

Further reading

• Farm forecast tools: https://farmingforecaster.com.au
• Weeds Australia https://weeds.org.au
• NSW WeedWise https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/
• PlantNET (NSW Flora Online Plant identification and distribution) https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/

Protecting, maintaining and revegetating riparian areas, wetlands and floodplains is critical for clean water, agricultural productivity and biodiversity on farms. Special care and attention should be paid to these areas and their management to sustain ecosystem function, health and ecosystem service provision, not only for the farm but the wider landscape and further down the catchment.

Benefits

• Vegetation in, around and alongside dams, rivers, creeks, wetlands and floodplains has numerous benefits. These include:
• Improved water quality and quantity: Fringing vegetation slows run-off, minimises erosion, stabilises soil, filters sediment and nutrients, reduces evaporation and shades the water column, lowering the water temperature. The deep root systems of riparian vegetation remove excess nutrients from subsurface flow before it leaches into the water body.
• Clean water sustains healthier, more productive livestock and crops and therefore increases farm productivity.
• The combination of increased water availability and elevated soil fertility in riparian zones and adjacent floodplains results in enhanced biodiversity and conversely greater primary production. A healthier, more structurally diverse, multi-storied riparian vegetation results in a high quality abundant wildlife habitat, as well as generating benefits for adjacent crops through ecosystem service provision, including nutrient cycling, pest control and pollination.
  Healthy and abundant riparian vegetation also contributes to the visual and aesthetic appeal and intrinsic value of farms.

Protect and maintain existing vegetation

Recommendations for managing riparian and wetland vegetation include:

• Exclude livestock by fencing riparian areas²³: Use plain wire, as native animals such as gliders, bats and birds become stuck in barbed wire. Fencing off riparian areas will prevent livestock fouling the water, improve water quality, and reduce bacteria and disease. Ensure that infrastructure is in place to reticulate water for livestock and crop irrigation.
• Control weeds and exotic plants²³: Consider physical removal or select chemicals that are appropriate for riparian areas. Ensure that chemical use complies with all relevant regulations (see Further information / reading).
• Snags (trees and branches fallen into watercourses) are valuable because they help create critical habitats and provide food and shelter for native fish and aquatic life. They affect water flow, creating deep pools for life to thrive in including micro-invertebrates and algae (for food) and fallen trees can stabilise riverbanks and slow water flow, allowing water to stay in the landscape for longer, which is especially important during drier periods.

Regenerate or revegetate?

• The amount of natural regeneration possible, or the revegetation needed, depends on many influences. These include the condition of the waterway, the impacts of climate change, abiotic factors and the condition of native vegetation at the site.²⁴
• Natural regeneration or assisted regeneration (by excluding grazing and managing weeds and pasture competition) is often the easiest and preferred approach, but this may not be possible if no native vegetation or seedbank remains, or if active revegetation with particular plant species is needed to achieve specific goals (e.g. to stabilise a river bank). Excluding grazing will allow native vegetation, including a perennial understorey to regenerate naturally, if healthy native vegetation is nearby or a seedbank remains.
• Assisted regeneration methods could include creating perches for birds to increase the chances of birds depositing seeds²⁵ – even steel fence posts can act as perches – or by pinning brush piles or branches to bare ground to capture sediment and seeds in overland flow thereby creating favourable micro-habitats for germination.²⁶
• If natural regeneration fails, try revegetation to plant the missing vegetation strata. Shrubs and ground storey plants are commonly absent due to grazing.
• Minimise the risk of erosion by reducing the amount of soil disturbance and where possible the period of time that bare soil is exposed.
• With revegetation, avoid planting vegetation that has a tendency to become invasive, as plants can easily be dispersed by water can become a problem for yourself and others downstream. Both native and exotic species can be invasive, therefore, ask your local nursery, Landcare group, NRM or LLS organisation for advice on what species to plant.
• Local native species may not be the best option if site conditions are very different from the reference ecosystem*.²⁴
• Revegetate with existing vegetation in mind and aim to connect riparian plantings with other vegetation on the farm, both riparian and non-riparian. Sometimes only supplementary planting is necessary to address gaps in the native vegetation.²³
• If erosion control is the primary goal for revegetating, aim to establish a fast-growing ground cover to stabilise banks. Grasses with fibrous root systems hold soil and protect against erosion. Once ground cover is established, additional plantings of trees, shrubs, and other understorey plants can be added.
• Aim to create a revegetated zone on all sides of the water body. The recommended buffer width depends on the Strahler stream order and should also consider land use, type of vegetation, slope, soil type, flooding regime, height and steepness of bank, size and type of waterway, rehabilitation objective, and what is possible for the site in question.²⁷
• For species selection, see Fact sheet 5: Species selection. Select plants that can cope with the conditions at the site, which may include prolonged waterlogging.
• Ground storey plants for riparian areas consist of reeds, sedges (e.g. Carex spp.), rushes (e.g. Juncus spp.) and grasses (e.g. kangaroo grass, Themeda triandra). All of these plant types can trap sediment and nutrients before they reach water bodies. In order for groundstorey plants to grow well, they need sunlight, therefore trees and shrubs should not be planted too densely.
• It is recommended use of compostable tree guards. If plastic tree guards are washed away by floodwaters, they will create pollution downstream.

Further information / reading 

• NSW DPIRD NSW plantation owner/manager’s guide https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0011/1604000/Plantation-owners-guide-to-buffer-zone-requirements-of-the-Plantations-and-Reafforestation-Code-Feb-2025.pdf
• NSW LLS Determining buffer distances from water bodies
  https://www.nsw.gov.au/regional-and-primary-industries/native-vegetation-land-management/resources-and-guides/determining-buffer-distances-from-water-bodies
• NSW water legislation
  https://water.dpie.nsw.gov.au/about-us/legislation-and-policies/acts-and-regulations
• Water Management Act 2000
  https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/act-2000-092
• Water Management (General) Regulation 2018
  https://legislation.nsw.gov.au/view/html/inforce/current/sl-2018-0480
• WaterNSW
  www.waternsw.com.au
• For information on licences for controlled activities in and near water courses, see www.industry.nsw.gov.au/water, and
  https://www.nsw.gov.au/environment-land-and-water/water-use-and-monitoring/water-licensing

24. Duxbury, E., Fryirs, K., Leishman, M.R. (2025). Benchmarking Riparian Vegetation Quality in Recovering Rivers: Implications for Management of Novel Ecosystems. Environmental Management 75, 221–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-024-02074-1

25. Guidetti, B. Y., Amico, G. C., Dardanelli, S., Rodriguez-Cabal, M. A. (2016). Artificial perches promote vegetation restoration. Plant ecology 217, 935-942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11258-016-0619-4

26. Tongway, D. J., and Ludwig, J. A. (1996). Rehabilitation of semiarid landscapes in Australia. I. Restoring productive soil patches. Restoration Ecology, 4(4), 388-397.

27. Foley-Congdon, E., Jellinek, S., Chee, Y.E., Greet, J. (2024). Revegetated riparian areas are dominated by weeds, and lack structural diversity and natural recruitment: lessons for restoration practice. Restoration Ecology 32, 4 e14098. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.14098

Download the Trees on farm factsheets here

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Benefits of remnant vegetation on farms

• According to a global study, working landscapes, including farms, benefit from having at least 20% of their area under native vegetation.²⁸
• Remnant native vegetation provides benefits to farmers in the form of ecosystem services*. Native vegetation sequesters carbon, helps maintain soil function, regulates water cycles, provides shade and shelter for livestock, and is a haven for biodiversity, providing habitat for a range of beneficial fauna and natural control agents.²⁹
• Retaining old trees is important as they sequester a disproportionate amount of carbon, both above,^{30, 31} and below ground.³² They also provide habitat for hollow-dependent marsupials, microbats, reptiles, frogs and birds.
• Marketable products from native vegetation remnants include timber, firewood, brush, essential oils, honey, cut flowers, fruits, seeds and nuts (see Fact sheet 7: Economic benefits).

Management recommendations

• It is important to protect the native vegetation that remains. The possibility of restoring damaged and altered ecosystems is never guaranteed and, by comparison to remnant vegetation protection, is expensive and time-consuming.
• Avoid fragmenting remnant vegetation. When planning new infrastructure, such as a road, if possible go around, not through the vegetation patch.
• Use native vegetation remnants as a starting point when planning regeneration of vegetation and/or revegetation on the farm.
• Encourage natural regeneration where possible through sympathetic or assisted management with prevailing conditions in mind.
• Natural regeneration of native vegetation can occur if grazing pressure is managed (see Fact sheet 2: Planning).
• Plant (new) native vegetation alongside remnant vegetation (e.g. travelling stock reserves, roadsides and creeks) to protect and enhance it.
• Retain dead trees and fallen timber, as old trees with hollows create habitats for more than 300 species of fauna.6 Dead trees are valuable habitats and a carbon store, while fallen timber provides important habitats and refuge for a wide range of ground dwelling fauna.
• When fencing off areas to regenerate or revegetate, use fencing that is wildlife friendly such as plain wire rather than barbed wire. Native animals such as gliders, bats and birds can become stuck on barbed wire.
• Australian scientists recommend having 10% of a farms’ extent covered in native vegetation and managed for biodiversity conservation, and a further 20% of non-intensively managed native vegetation.7
• Refer to the laws and regulations applying to native vegetation on farms at the NSW Local Land Services website (see Further information / reading).

Risk of poor or non-existent management

• If existing native vegetation remnants are not protected from heavy grazing and/or are damaged by livestock and feral pest animals (i.e. pigs), natural processes of regeneration can be impeded.

Management recommendations

• Controlled grazing in native vegetation can be a management tool (see Biodiversity Conservation Trust - Livestock grazing guidelines (in Further information / reading). Ensure that grazing is managed and timed so that the ground cover remains in good condition. Grazing should be responsive to the condition of the vegetation, especially the ground cover, as well as to flowering and seed set times, and seasonal conditions. Excluding grazing at appropriate times will provide native vegetation, including perennials in the understorey, the best chance to regenerate naturally from the current seasonal seed production or the seedbank.
• Monitoring and controlling weeds will help protect and maintain existing native vegetation and encourage natural regeneration. Weeds can be managed and reduced through controlled grazing (as outlined above), biological control agents and spot spraying.
• Trees specifically grown for timber production will need to be thinned and harvested at the appropriate time for the chosen species planted to maximise the growth expectations for the merchantable timber.³³ Zero or sub-optimal management will translate into a poorer harvest when the trees have reached harvest age and therefore either a loss or reduction of potential income is likely.

Further information / reading

• NSW Government. Biodiversity Conservation Trust (BCT). 2021. Livestock grazing guidelines for private land conservation.
  https://www.bct.nsw.gov.au/resources/managing-your-land/grazing
• Local Land Services (LLS) help and advice pages:
  • Land management in NSW.
    https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/land-management-in-nsw.
  • Land Management and Biodiversity Reform Framework
    https://www.lls.nsw.gov.au/help-and-advice/land-management-in-nsw/land-management-framework#Land%20Management%20and%20Biodiveristy%20Conservation%20Framework
• PlantNET (NSW Flora Online Plant identification and distribution)
  https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/
• Weeds Australia
  https://weeds.org.au
• NSW WeedWise
  https://weeds.dpi.nsw.gov.au/
• Wildlife friendly fencing
  www.wildlifefriendlyfencing.com

28. Garibaldi, L. A., Oddi, F. J., Miguez, F. E.,Bartomeus, I., Orr, M. C., Jobbágy, E. G.,...,Zhu, C. D. (2021). Working landscapes need at least 20% native habitat. Conservation Letters, 14(2), e12773. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12773

29. Haslem, A, Bennett, A.F., & Radford, J.Q. (2024). Importance of (Semi)Natural Vegetation on Farms for Achieving Multiple Objectives: A Conceptual Model Based on Temperate Southern Australia. Agricultural systems 213, 103795.

30. Smith, R., Renton, M., Reid, N. (2017). Growth and carbon sequestration by remnant Eucalyptus camaldulensis woodlands in semi-arid Australia during La Niña conditions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 232, 704-710

31.Stephenson, N.L. et al. (2014). Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature 507 (7490), 90-93. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12914

32.Dean, C., Kirkpatrick, J.B., Doyle, R.B., Osborn, J., Fitzgerald, N.B., Roxburgh. S.H. (2020). The overlooked soil carbon under large, old trees. Geoderma 376, 2020, 114541 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2020.114541

33.Francis, B., Venn, T., Lewis, T., Brawner, J. (2022). Case Studies of the Financial Performance of Silvopastoral Systems in Southern Queensland, Australia. Forests 2022, 13, 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020186

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When selecting plant species for a revegetation project on your farm, consider the site conditions and local climate, as well as projected changes in the local climate, and the main purpose(s) of your planting.

Site conditions

Choose species that will be suited to the conditions at the planting site. If unsure, seek advice from your local native plant nursery, Landcare or catchment group, or LLS office. Site conditions to consider (but are limited to) include:

• Soil fertility, depth, texture, drainage, pH, salinity and waterlogging
• Topography - what is the landscape position of the site in relation to slope? Ridge top, upper slope, mid-slope, lower slope, valley floor?
• What is the site aspect and the degree of exposure?

Climate

With climate, it is important to consider both the historical and current climate, as well as projected changes. Climate-ready revegetation1 is a general guide to estimating climate projections for your local area. In general, wet areas are forecast to become wetter, and dry areas drier.³⁴ For up-to-date seasonal conditions and drought information, see Further information / reading.

• Regarding rainfall, you should consider whether your area is forecast to become wetter or drier, on average, and how the seasonal distribution of rainfall might change in the future as this may influence the species selection.
• With temperature, find out how frost incidence and severity (especially in tablelands environments) is likely to change, as frost tolerant species may need to be considered.

Purposes of planting vegetation (see Fact sheet 1: Benefits and Fact sheet 2: Planning)

• To mitigate soil erosion: Tree root systems bind soil and help prevent erosion. Select species with fibrous and spreading root systems and that drop a lot of leaf litter. She-oak (Casuarina spp.), wattles (Acacia spp.), paperbark (Melaleuca spp.), and bottlebrush (Callistemon spp.) are recommended.
• To provide shade. Trees that are tall with a spreading crown cast the most shade. Trees should ideally be resistant to rubbing and chewing by livestock (e.g. large smooth-barked eucalypts). In contrast, deciduous trees like white cedar (Melia azedarach) (spaced 6–10 m apart) are ideal around yards and water points as they don’t provide shade in winter.
• To provide a windbreak: Windbreaks function best if a reasonably dense canopy (foliage and branches) is distributed from ground level to the top of the tallest trees in the windbreak. This can be achieved by planting a mix of species of different heights in multiple rows. At least one species should have low-growing branches and foliage. Single species, such as Monterey pine (Pinus radiata) and Leyland cypress (Cupressocyparis leylandii), may sometimes be preferred as they are dense and branch from ground to top but are susceptible to extreme drought.
• To provide fodder: Various native and introduced species are both digestible and palatable to livestock. Native fodder species include kurrajong (Brahychiton populneus), mulga (Acacia aneura) and saltbush (Atriplex nummularia, A. vesicaria). Introduced species include tagasaste (Cytisus proliferus) and carob (Ceratonia siliqua).
• For fire protection: Fire-retardant or fire-resistant species such as white cedar, boobialla (Myoporum insulare), chenopods (Atriplex, Maireana, Enchylaena, Rhagodia spp.), lilly pilly (Syzigium smithii) and kurrajong should be considered. Species with soft, non-leathery leaves lacking oils and resins, or that contain a high salt content in their leaves and resist burning (e.g. saltbush and boobialla) are best. Most deciduous trees are slower to ignite than sclerophyll evergreen species such as eucalypts, banksias and xanthorrhoeas, but native species do have the ability to regenerate after fire where other species may not.
• For wildlife habitat: Native fauna, such as small birds, need shrubs and understorey plants to provide food and shelter year-round and nesting sites. Dense understorey and shrubbery deters noisy miners (Manorina melanocephala) from dominating and excluding small birds from eucalypt stands. Choose a mixture of understorey plant species that offer nectar, such as grevilleas, banksias and bottlebrushes, and small berries, such as boobialla and berry chenopods, year-round. Other beneficial native fauna such as lizards, frogs and invertebrates (butterflies, wasps, etc.) also benefit from shrubbery and understorey plants.
• For timber and wood: If trees are grown for production as merchantable timber, consider planting species in demand (check with local sawmillers), when and how the timber will be thinned and harvested, and site access for large harvesting machinery and logging trucks. If trees are grown for biomass production, consider planting suitable woody species including mallees, acacias and some traditional forestry species. DPIRD Forest Carbon has carried out crop trials across NSW and have a list of suggested species to plant (see Further information / reading).
• For oil, honey and other forest products (see Fact sheet 7: Economic benefits): Species should be chosen for their particular marketable products of interest. For example, tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) can be grown on the North Coast of NSW for tea tree oil production and blue-leaved mallee (Eucalyptus polybractea) can be grown in Western NSW for eucalyptus oil production (see Further information / reading).

Species selection

Regional branches of organisations such as Greening Australia, NSW Forestry Hubs, Landcare groups, Local Land Services (LLS), NRM organisations and native plant nurseries, as well as local experts are best placed to advise on species selection.

Native ecosystems for wildlife

If the aim is to establish improved native wildlife habitat at a site, consider restoring the reference ecosystem* and choosing native species that would have occurred at the site Pre-European settlement. If there are no examples of the reference ecosystem remaining in the surrounding landscape , consult the above-mentioned organisations for advice about the reference ecosystems in your area.

Alternatively, you may look to establish a novel ecosystem* and choose native plant species that will perform well in local conditions, considering the site conditions, climate and habitat requirements of the local wildlife species.

Plant species differ in their capacity to adapt to changes in conditions:³⁵

• Choose species that have the best chance of adapting to anticipated changes in weather patterns. It might be appropriate to source seed or tubestock from non-local populations to increase the chances of successful establishment.³⁵
• Another strategy to prepare for anticipated changes in climate is to use a broad mix of species, both proven locally adapted species and non-local species.³⁵
• Use seed or seedlings that originate from different locations to increase the genetic diversity, and therefore the adaptability and resilience, of the plant community.³⁶

Further information / reading

• PlantNET (NSW Flora Online Plant identification and distribution)
  https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/
• A list of fire resistant and retardant plants for Victoria, many examples apply to NSW
  https://apsvic.org.au/fire-resistant-and-retardant-plants/
• DPIRD Seasonal Conditions and Drought (State Seasonal Updates) https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/dpi/climate/seasonal-conditions-and-drought
• DPIRD Forest Carbon (Woody Biomass Crop Trials)
  https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/forestry/science/forest-carbon/biomass-for-bioenergy/biomass-crops
• G.R. Davis (Western NSW Eucalyptus oil  and Tea tree oil production)
  https://grdavis.com.au/

34. CSIRO and Bureau of Meteorology. 2015. Climate Change in Australia. Information for Australia’s Natural Resource Management Regions: Technical Report. Available from: https://www.climatechangeinaustralia.gov.au/en/communication-resources/reports/

35. Hancock, N., Harris, R., Broadhurst, L., Hughes, L. (2018). Climate-ready revegetation. A guide for natural resource managers. Version 2. Macquarie University, Sydney. Available from: http://anpc.asn.au/resources/climate_ready_revegetation

36. Broadhurst, L. M., Lowe, A., Coates, D. J., Cunningham, S. A., McDonald, M., Vesk, P. A., Yates, C. (2008). Seed supply for broadscale restoration: maximizing evolutionary potential. Evolutionary Applications, 1(4), 587-597.

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Revegetation requires ongoing maintenance and management to ensure the successful establishment and growth of new plantings. These considerations should be implemented from the planning stage (see Fact sheet 2: Planning). The resources needed (i.e. finance, time, equipment, infrastructure, expertise and skills) for your revegetation project will influence the required maintenance and management decisions. It is better to succeed on a smaller project, than to struggle and potentially fail on a bigger, more ambitious one that you can’t maintain. ³⁷ Employ adaptive management* and start small, building on your successes and learning from any failures.³⁸

The following actions are important to include in your maintenance and management schedule:

• Check the survival rate of direct seeding and seedlings after 1 month. If establishment is poor, ascertain the reason(s) before deciding whether to replant the same species, try another species, try a different planting approach or abandon the site and choose a new site. Continue assessing the survival rate at least every 6 months for 2-3 years.
• After 1-2 months, check if your pre-planting weed control was sufficient or whether weeds are affecting seedling establishment and growth. If weed pressure is evident, weed control should be implemented to allow seeded plants and tubestock to reach a height where they can outcompete weeds. Ongoing control measures could include mechanical controls (i.e. cultivation, mowing, slashing) or spraying herbicides (care should be taken with native plant species as spray drift can cause significant damage including death).
• Check that seedlings are not damaged by livestock, native wildlife, ferals, vermin), plant pests (insects) or diseases. Prevention strategies will depend on the damaging agent and determining the most effective way to exclude/prevent them. Maintain tree hygiene by treating any wounds, pest outbreaks or breakages in young plants.
• Trees will need protection from browsing livestock until the growing tip of the main stem and higher lateral branches are beyond their reach. Before the resumption of sheep or cattle grazing, 80% of the trees should exceed 2m and 3m tall, respectively. Generally, this means excluding livestock for 3 years in areas planted with Hiko sized seedlings (common) or tubestock, and 5 years for direct-seeded areas. Time-controlled grazing should be implemented initially for only 1-2 hours each day, and the livestock removed before they begin to browse the trees.
• Subsequent watering after establishment is not usually necessary when plantings are well-planned and carefully executed at the right seasonal time. However, unexpected dry and hot conditions may demand watering. Watering is especially important during the first 12 to 18 months if plants are showing signs of water stress. Occasional deep watering is preferable to regular shallow watering, as the latter encourages shallow root systems and weed growth.
• If natural regeneration occurs adjacent to the planted area, consider additional fencing to protect these areas and incorporate them into the revegetation/regeneration area.
• Selective thinning (or pruning) to remove poor, diseased or defective plants can make space for stronger ones to grow and flourish.³⁹ The importance of silvicultural treatments will depend on the species planted and reason for the plantings (e.g. harvestable quality timber will require planned silvicultural treatments). Planned silvicultural practices will increase the mean annual increment of merchantable timber compared to no management at all.⁴⁰
• If harvesting plantings for either timber production or biomass production, access roads will need to be regularly maintained and improved at harvesting time to allow for an increase in traffic and large machinery and vehicles.
• It is important to apply the principles of adaptive management* and regularly review your goal(s) and plan for each planting site. Are you on track to achieve your goal(s) (i.e. plantings for a windbreak, timber production, biomass production, environmental plantings, soil improvement plantings, etc.)? What worked? What didn’t? What could you do differently? Has the climate shifted significantly to impact your goal(s)? What could you monitor to generate meaningful measures throughout the project (rainfall; temperature; soil improvements; carbon retained/increased in soil; carbon estimate in plants; plant growth such as height, crown width, diameter at breast height(DBH) to determine potential timber volume or potential biomass volume; reduced wind flow; increased biodiversity on the farm; increased native vegetation cover on the farm)? Do you need to change the goal(s) and the reason for the plantings if goal(s) are not being meet (could the plantings fulfil another meaningful goal – i.e. windbreak plantings didn’t reach expected heights, could this be changed to an environmental planting project with other extensive benefits to the farm)?

37. Australian Association of Bush Regenerators (AABR). (2023). What do bush regenerators do? Available from: https://www.aabr.org.au/learn/what-i-bush-regeneration/

38. Hancock, N., Harris, R., Broadhurst, L., Hughes, L. (2018). Climate-ready revegetation. A guide for natural resource managers. Version 2. Macquarie University, Sydney. Available from: http://anpc.asn.au/resources/climate_ready_revegetation

39. NSW Agriculture, (1992). Home study program. Land management series. Book 3: Types of Tree Production. Chapter 1: Commercial woodlots. ISBN:1 86277 362 9

40.  Francis, B., Venn, T., Lewis, T., Brawner, J. (2022). Case Studies of the Financial Performance of Silvopastoral Systems in Southern Queensland, Australia. Forests, 13(2), 186. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13020186

41. State of New South Wales through Regional NSW. (2023). Managing drought, fire and flood. A guide for NSW primary producers. First edition. ISBN: 978-1-76058-764-2. 200 pp. Available from: https://www.droughthub.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/1501848/NSW-Gov-Managing-drought-fire-and-flood.pdf

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Agroforestry is about establishing and managing trees or forest stands on private agricultural lands such as farms. Farmers goals and values should dictate the design, species selection and management of agroforestry projects.⁴² Landholders undertake agroforestry for ecosystem services*, for both non-productive benefits (i.e. biodiversity, soil fertility, etc.) and productive benefits (income from saleable products).⁴³This factsheet focuses on the latter, economic benefits, whereas Fact sheet 1: Benefits in this series focuses on the non-productive benefits of agroforestry. Generating income from agroforestry requires careful consideration of the benefits, risks and trade-offs to ensure its successful integration into the farm business.

• Some considerations in the planning phase
• Planting trees and other vegetation needs to be part of long-term, whole-farm plan⁴⁴ (see Fact sheet 2: Planning).
• Revegetation requires upfront investment, but any economic benefits may not be realised for years or even decades. Costs vary and depend on the location, scope and details of each project⁴⁵ (see Fact sheet 2: Planning).
• Given the cost of revegetation, as well as the relative permanence of plantings, consider all the possible benefits in the planning phase and ensure that your agroforestry project corresponds with your goals and values.⁴⁶ (see Fact sheet 1: Benefits and Fact sheet 2: Planning)
• What other farm enterprises require your time and attention? If your time and resources are already stretched to the limit, it may not be the right time to consider any additional projects or enterprises.
• The expected final agroforestry product (the economic benefit from plantings) will inform what resources will be required, including those needed for maintenance and management.
• What and where are the markets for your agroforestry product(s)? Consider timing of harvesting operations, farm access, transport, weather forecasts, etc. For example, if timber is grown for production as merchantable timber, consider what species is in demand (check with local sawmillers), forest health monitoring to ensure control of pests and diseases, at what age and how the timber will be thinned and harvested, and how the timber will be transported to a sawmill.6 In the case of timber production, if no sawmills are nearby consider a portable mill to process production timber yourself.
• Consider additional value adding enterprises that can contribute to farm income diversification and even increased biodiversity and improved soil conditions. Some examples that can provide all these benefits include harvesting and distilling eucalyptus or tea tree oil for production or short-rotation woody crops that are coppiced for biomass production. For both examples, roots remain permanently to help bind soil and sequester carbon while the above ground material is harvested regularly (see Further information / reading).

Benefits

The key economic benefit of agroforestry is farm income diversification. Agroforestry can also lead to increased farm resilience, soil improvement, increased biodiversity, increased land value and even the potential for increased productivity and yields in other farm enterprises (i.e. cropping and livestock). The income from agroforestry can come not just from the direct sale of physical products such as timber, biomass or other byproducts (i.e. essential oils), but also indirectly (financial products) from just establishing the trees on the farm.

1. Financial products include:

• Carbon credits. Refer to the Clean Energy Regulator (CER) https://cer.gov.au/schemes/australian-carbon-credit-unit-scheme/how-to-participate-accu-scheme for more information.
• Biodiversity certificates. Refer to the Clean Energy Regulator (CER), https://cer.gov.au/markets/biodiversity-certificates and https://cer.gov.au/schemes/nature-repair-market-scheme for more information.

2. Physical products include:

• Timber production (long-rotation plantations)
• Biomass production (short-rotation woody crops)
• Essential oils (e.g. eucalyptus oil and tea tree oil)

3. Honey production

• Fruit trees (e.g. coffee)
• Nut trees (e.g. macadamias) and Seed trees (e.g. wattle seeds).

Risks

• Trees and other perennial vegetation take time to grow. You will have to wait longer than an annual crop (i.e. grains) before products can be harvested and the benefits realised.⁴⁷
• The policy environment could change, affecting how you view the benefits, risks and trade-offs of your agroforestry project.⁴²
• New enterprises mean new systems, techniques, expertise and getting to know new suppliers, value chain actors, and learning about the markets. Researching what is required will take time. You will likely require professional advice (i.e. legal, taxation, financial, investment) and benefit from talking to experts and producers already in the industry, plus you may want to travel to meet buyers and manufacturers.
• If the plan is to generate carbon credits, the first step is to research and obtain advice to understand the market and the requirements of the various methods published by the Clean Energy Regulator (CER), https://cer.gov.au/schemes/australian-carbon-credit-unit-scheme/how-to-participate-accu-scheme.
• It is important to choose species and a planting configuration with the aim to minimise fire risk (see Fact sheets 1: Benefits).
• Changing or adding native woody vegetation on your farm may require a change in how weeds are managed. For instance, native plant species should be protected from herbicides (see Fact sheet 2: Planning and Fact sheet 6: Maintenance and management).

Weighing up considerations, benefits and risks

Research and seek context-specific agroforestry advice that focuses on your farm, your goals and your values so that you can maximise the chances of realising multiple productive (economic) benefits as well as non-productive (landscape) benefits, while minimising risks and trade-offs.^{48, 49}

Further information / reading

• DPIRD Forest Carbon (Woody Biomass Crop Trials) https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/forestry/science/forest-carbon/biomass-for-bioenergy/biomass-crops
• G.R. Davis (Western NSW Eucalyptus oil and Tea tree oil production) https://grdavis.com.au/

42. Australian Agroforestry Foundation https://agroforestry.org.au

43. van Noordwijk, M. Agroforestry-Based Ecosystem Services. Land 2021, 10, 770. https://doi.org/10.3390/

44. NSW Agriculture. 1992. Home study program. Land management series. Book 1:Farm productivity and trees. Chapter 1: Benefits of trees. ISBN:1 86277 346.

45.NSW Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water. (2024). Planting Plan Guide 2025. MidCoast. February 2025. 58pp. Available from: https://www.energy.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/2025-03/NSW-2025-LivingCarbonGrants-Planting-Plan-Guide-MidCoast-2024method.pdf

46.Sinnett, A., Behrendt, R. Ho, C. Malcolm, B. (2016) The carbon credits and economic return on environmental plantings a prime lamb property in south eastern Australia. Land use Policy, 52, 374-381.

47.Francis, B., Venn, T., Lewis, T., Brawner, J. (2022). Case Studies of the Financial Performance of Silvopastoral Systems in Southern Queensland, Australia. Forests, 13, 186. https://doil.org/10.3390/f13020186

48. Hancock, N., Harris, R., Broadhurst, L., Hughes, L. (2018). Climate-ready revegetation. A guide for natural resource managers. Version 2. Macquarie University, Sydney. Available from: http://anpc.asn.au/resources/climate_ready_revegetation

49. Metternicht, G., Waters, C., Baumber, A., Cross, R. (2019). Potential indicators for the co-benefits of carbon farming. Evaluation of potential indicators for the co-benefits of carbon farming in NSW. Progress Brief #3 to the NSW Department of Primary Industries for the project ‘A Decision Support Tool to Enhance Carbon Farming Opportunities’.

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